Tijdens deze verplaatsingen, die soms weken duurden, kregen de gevangenen weinig voedsel en vooral weinig water wat bij aankomst soms tot grote verliezen bleek te leiden. A very precise map was made by the Memorial Foundation. In totaal stierven in de goelags gedurende enkele decennia miljoenen mensen (zie het hoofdstuk "Aantal slachtoffers"), zowel Sovjetburgers als buitenlanders (onder andere Duitse en Japanse krijgsgevangenen, Polen en Finnen). Elke groep kreeg andersoortig werk en vaste normen waaraan voldaan diende te worden (anders werd het rantsoen gehalveerd). This notorious you-eat-as-you-work system would often kill weaker prisoners in weeks and caused countless casualties. [92] (See also Foreign forced labor in the Soviet Union. [31] Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although significant numbers of political prisoners could be found in the camps at any one time.[32]. Origine, Progrès et État actuel de la puissance russe - Dangers pour l'Europe. page 32). Goelag was in de Sovjet-Unie de overheidsdienst die verantwoordelijk was voor straf- en werkkampen. It wasn't until the famine ended that the system started to stabilize. When the tide of the war turned, however, and the Soviets started pushing the Axis invaders back, fresh batches of laborers replenished the camps. [121], Between 1990 and 1992, the first precise statistical data on the Gulag based on the Gulag archives were published by Viktor Zemskov. Locals who captured a runaway were given rewards. It peaked in the early 1950s, when there were more than 100 camp administrations across the Soviet Union. A sign in the prisoner's barracks reads ", A sign on the entry gate to the camp reads approximately the same motto, 18,000,000 people passed through the Gulag's camps, 53 Gulag camp directorates (colloquially referred to as simply "camps") and 423 labor colonies in the Soviet Union as of March 1940, The tentative consensus in contemporary Soviet historiography is that roughly 1,600,000, There were separate camps or zones within camps for juveniles (, Finally, Barnes advances his own, fourth explanation, which situates the Gulag in the context of modern projects of '. [110] It is also said that camps in colder areas were less concerned with finding escaped prisoners as they would die anyhow from the severely cold winters. *FREE* shipping on eligible orders. Nadat Jezjov van zijn post was ontheven, heeft Lavrenti Beria als nieuw hoofd van de NKVD de regimeverzwaring op onderdelen deels opgeheven met als doel het economische nut van de kampen weer te verhogen. In 1918–22, the agency was administered by Cheka, followed by the GPU, OGPU, later by … "[89] According to German researchers, Sachsenhausen, where 12,500 Soviet era victims have been uncovered, should be seen as an integral part of the Gulag system. In 1940 the Soviet Union occupied Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia (now the Republic of Moldova) and Bukovina. to date, Russian historians have discovered and described 476 camps that existed at different times on the territory of the USSR. [53], The legal base and the guidance for the creation of the system of "corrective labor camps" (Russian: исправи́тельно-трудовые лагеря, Ispravitel'no-trudovye lagerya), the backbone of what is commonly referred to as the "Gulag", was a secret decree from the Sovnarkom of July 11, 1929, about the use of penal labor that duplicated the corresponding appendix to the minutes of the Politburo meeting of June 27, 1929. [36][37], Although the term Gulag originally referred to a government agency, in English and many other languages the acronym acquired the qualities of a common noun, denoting the Soviet system of prison-based, unfree labor.[38]. [41] Under the Imperial Russian penal system, those convicted of less serious crimes were sent to corrective prisons and also made to work. VCheka — KGB. Dans les appartements communautaires, confisqués aux bourgeois où s’entasse une famille par pièce, chacun a peur de l’autre. the Gulag. Sobranie Dokumentov v 7 Tomakh (The History of Stalin's Gulag. [citation needed], One of the Gulag system founders was Naftaly Frenkel. [44] From these times, Siberia gained its fearful connotation of punishment, which was further enhanced by the Soviet GULAG system. The site on the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea is one of the earliest and also most noteworthy, taking root soon after the Revolution in 1918. Avec son équipe, il est parti pour la Sibérie extrême-orientale et a remonté la fameuse route fédérale de la Kolyma, construite par les prisonniers du Goulag entre 1932 et 1953, qui relie sur 2 032 kilomètres la ville de Magadan à celle de Iakoutsk. In 1944, they were sent directly to reserve military formations to be cleared by the NKVD. In totaal stierven in de goelags gedurende enkele decennia miljoenen mensen, zowel … [87][88], After Nazi Germany's defeat, ten NKVD-run "special camps" subordinate to the Gulag were set up in the Soviet Occupation Zone of post-war Germany. Le grand écrivain russe Soljenitsyne nommera l'archipel du goulag, des centaines de camps de concentration datant de Lénine et multipliés à l'infini par Staline. De beschrijving was ook metaforisch bedoeld: de archipel als eilanden van werkkampen omringd door de zee van een normale samenleving. The initial aim in mapping the geographical character of the Russian penal estate was to illustrate the continuity from the gulag to the present day in the use of … Petty crimes and jokes about the Soviet government and officials were punishable by imprisonment. [25], Some suggest that 14 million people were imprisoned in the Gulag labor camps from 1929 to 1953 (the estimates for the period 1918–1929 are more difficult to calculate). On Assessing the Size of Forced Concentration Camp Labour in the Soviet Union, 1929–56. sobranie dokumentov v 7 tomakh. [113][114] The Russian researcher Galina Ivanova stated that,[114]. Ses poèmes ont été publiés plus tard car … ter plaatse en diegenen die (meest) onvrijwillig tot kampbewaker of kampadministrateur werden gepromoveerd blijven buiten beeld, alsmede alle geëxecuteerde en gestorven gevangenen en diegenen die in de oorlogsjaren afgevoerd werden naar strafbataljons of naar andere eenheden van het Rode Leger gezonden werden. The area along the Indigirka river was known as the Gulag inside the Gulag. Camp guards were given stern incentive to keep their inmates in line at all costs; if a prisoner escaped under a guard's watch, the guard would often be stripped of his uniform and become a Gulag inmate himself. ), The Russian penal system, despite reforms and a reduction in prison population, informally or formally continues many practices endemic to the Gulag system, including forced labor, inmates policing inmates, and prisoner intimidation. Les camps auxquels les trois membres de Pussy Riot sont condamnées abritent quelque 640.000 prisonniers, dont près de 52.000 femmes. Katorga, a category of punishment reserved for those convicted of the most serious crimes, had many of the features associated with labor-camp imprisonment: confinement, simplified facilities (as opposed to prisons), and forced labor, usually involving hard, unskilled or semi-skilled work. Hierdoor konden hoger geschoolden zoals ingenieurs en wetenschappers en andere 'specialisten' weer op productievere plaatsen ingezet worden. At the beginning of 1953 the total number of prisoners in prison camps was more than 2.4 million of which more than 465,000 were political prisoners.[74]. De organisatie genaamd 'Goelag' werd opgericht in 1930 om de vele al bestaande kampen en gevangenissen in de hele Sovjet-Unie (USSR), die in Rusland bekendstonden onder de naam katorga, te beheren. Tot 1929 was er echter geen sprake van een volledig georganiseerde structuur. "Gulag: A History." Het aantal gevangenen in de goelagkampen en -kolonies bedroeg, volgens de documenten van de NKVD tussen 1930 en 1953 zoals geteld op 1 januari van ieder jaar, als volgt[8] (deze gegevens stemmen overeen met andere gegevens uit de Sovjetbureaucratie en de meeste geleerden die zich in de kamparchieven hebben verdiept, zijn het over deze op bevel van Chroetsjov samengestelde telling wel eens): Bovenstaande tellingen voor ieder individueel jaar zijn deels misleidend omdat ze het opmerkelijk grote verloop in het Goelagkampsysteem maskeren, ze zijn ook exclusief krijgsgevangenen (van wie er op een gegeven moment zo'n 4 miljoen waren) en zuiveringskampen. [5]:1024 However, taking into account the fact that it was common practice to release prisoners who were either suffering from incurable diseases or near death,[20][21] a combined statistics on mortality in the camps and mortality caused by the camps gives a probable figure around 1.6 million. Soviet state documents show that the goals of the gulag included colonization of sparsely populated remote areas. [citation needed]. [29] Its major function was the organization of foreign forced labor in the Soviet Union. Join Facebook to connect with Alexandra Russe Aktuel and others you may know. Vooral onder het bewind van Jozef Stalin zijn veel mensen naar de kampen gestuurd; volgens officiële partijstatistieken die in 1993 werden vrijgegeven door de Russische overheid zouden in 1939, dus vlak na de periode van de Grote Zuiveringen 2.022.976 mensen gevangen hebben gezeten. The solution they found was to push the remaining prisoners still harder. This was only the beginning of the dekulakisation process, however. It seems that a resultant of these objective departmental interests was a sufficient degree of reliability of the reports. Minister-president Mark Rutte heeft jarenlang gekampt met media die steeds maar weer over zijn seksuele voorkeur begonnen, en nu is Baudet aan de beurt. Tous les Russes connaissent ce chant du Goulag, élaboré par les détenus: «Sois maudite, ô toi, Kolyma, Surnommée notre planète! In werkelijkheid heeft het dwangarbeiderssysteem van de Goelag nooit winst opgeleverd. Documentaire ARTE, Laogai, le goulag chinois, durée : 52 minutes, langue : français www.taichi-kungfu.fr In addition, factories converted to produce ammunition, uniforms, and other supplies. To make up for this disparity, the NKVD worked prisoners harder than ever. De‐Convoyed Prisoners and Porous Borders in the Camps of Western Siberia. [45] Distrust, hostility, and even hatred for the intelligentsia was a common characteristic of the Soviet leaders. [54], After having appeared as an instrument and place for isolating counter-revolutionary and criminal elements, the Gulag, because of its principle of "correction by forced labor", it quickly became, in fact, an independent branch of the national economy secured on the cheap labor force presented by prisoners. In her view, the goal of a totalitarian system was not merely to establish limits on liberty, but rather to abolish liberty entirely in service of its ideology. [77], Even as the pool of workers shrank, demand for outputs continued to grow rapidly. Initially the inmates, largely Russian intelligentsia, enjoyed relative freedom (within the natural confinement of the islands). [124], In response, Zemskov wrote that the charge that Zemskov allegedly did not compare new data with already known information could not be called fair. The Gulag is recognized as a major instrument of political repression in the Soviet Union. During and after World War II, freed POWs went to special "filtration" camps. In the words of a former Gulag prisoner: "By the spring of 1942, the camp ceased to function. The Bolsheviks' own experiences with exile and forced labor provided them with a model on which to base their system, including the importance of strict enforcement. In 1918–22, the agency was administered by Cheka, followed by the GPU (1922–23), OGPU (1923–34), later by the NKVD (1934–46), and in the final years by the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD). [76] To improve the situation, laws were implemented in mid-1940 that allowed giving short camp sentences (4 months or a year) to those convicted of petty theft, hooliganism, or labor-discipline infractions. Le Goulag a eu de modestes précédents dans la Russie tsariste avec des brigades de travail forcé en Sibérie aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles.. C’est en 1649 que l’on trouve dans le droit russe la première mention de l’exil, une forme de châtiment somme toute préférable à la mort ou la mutilation. Pas halverwege de jaren twintig werd door Naftali Frenkel, een gevangene op de Solovetski-eilanden die van onder af opklom tot kampcommandant van Solovetski, een manier gevonden om een gevangenenkamp te veranderen in een ogenschijnlijk winstgevende economische factor. During this time, prisoners were getting around 300 calories (1,300 kJ) worth of food a day. Ce documentaire est une plongée dans l’un des plus effroyables et gigantesques systèmes concentrationnaires les du XXe siècle. [20] Analysis of the official GULAG statistics by Western scholars immediately demonstrated that, despite their inconsistency, they do not support previously published higher estimates. "Repressions". Tantalised by large rewards as well, they began aiding authorities in the capture of Gulag inmates. The release of political prisoners started in 1954 and became widespread, and also coupled with mass rehabilitations, after Nikita Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalinism in his Secret Speech at the 20th Congress of the CPSU in February 1956. However, camps were generally spread throughout the entire Soviet Union, including the European parts of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. [50] The Cheka and its successor organizations, the GPU or State Political Directorate and the OGPU, oversaw political prisoners and the "special" camps to which they were sent. 2006. The Gulag[c] or GULAG (Russian: ГУЛАГ; acronym for Glavnoe upravlenie lagerei, Главное управление лагерей, 'Main Directorate of Camps')[d][11][12][13] was the government agency in charge of the Soviet network of forced labor camps set up by order of Vladimir Lenin, reaching its peak during Joseph Stalin's rule from the 1930s to the early 1950s. Колымские истории: очерки. Discipline militaire, humiliation, toute puissance de l’administration : les prisons russes n’ont pas beaucoup changé depuis l’époque du goulag. Dit getal rekende daar buitenlanders en krijgsgevangenen niet bij. Between 1934 and 1941, the number of prisoners with higher education increased more than eight times, and the number of prisoners with high education increased five times. Premiered Tuesday, 04 February 2020 # Title Air Date; 1: Origines : 1917-1933: Tuesday, 04 February 2020: 2: Prolifération : 1934-1945 In the early 1930s, a tightening of Soviet penal policy caused significant growth of the prison camp population. [47] These early camps of the GULAG system were introduced in order to isolate and eliminate class-alien, socially dangerous, disruptive, suspicious, and other disloyal elements, whose deeds and thoughts were not contributing to the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat. In addition to the large numbers of camps, there were no less than 2,000 colonies. On y trouvait des contre-révolutionnaires ("mencheviks.") certains ne se relèvent jamais. Camps were directed "not to spare bullets". Voor relatief kleine vergrijpen kunnen nog steeds lange gevangenisstraffen worden opgelegd. Le Goulag est l’organisme central gérant les camps de travail forcé en Union soviétique. Local newspapers and magazines were published and even some scientific research was carried out (e.g., a local botanical garden was maintained but unfortunately later lost completely). Goelag is een acroniem voor het Russische Главное управление исправительно-трудовых лагерей, oftewel "Hoofddirectoraat voor opvoedings- en werkkampen". Boris Stomakhine est un journaliste russe qui représente le mouvement radical d’opposition au régime actuel. [3] Oorzaken waren de toegenomen chaos en wanorde, het gebrek aan organisatie evenals het toenemend aantal zieke en stervende gevangenen. "Lives in the Balance: Weak and Disabled Prisoners and the Biopolitics of the Gulag. As a rule, they were situated in remote parts of the USSR, and labor conditions were extremely hard there. In those days, people were highly responsible for non-fulfilment of plan. [43] Convicts serving labor sentences and exiles were sent to the underpopulated areas of Siberia and the Russian Far East – regions that had few towns or food sources and lacked any organized transportation systems. In many ways the GUPVI system was similar to GULAG. Over the next few months, prosecutions rose fourfold. Right before the war, forced labor provided 46.5% of the nation's nickel, 76% of its tin, 40% of its cobalt, 40.5% of its chrome-iron ore, 60% of its gold, and 25.3% of its timber. The internment system grew rapidly, reaching a population of 100,000 in the 1920s. Parti du Goulag. These prisoners have deteriorated to the point of losing any resemblance to human beings. Hence it is followed by one more important reason for the constancy of the repressive policy, namely, the state's interest in unremitting rates of receiving a cheap labor force that was forcibly used, mainly in the extreme conditions of the east and north. The activity of Gulag camps spanned a wide cross-section of Soviet industry. [94][95] According to a 1993 study of archival Soviet data, a total of 1,053,829 people died in the Gulag from 1934 to 1953. 2:30. Hierin zijn niet begrepen de verliezen bij transport, de massa-executies van 'politieken' in bepaalde periodes in en buiten de kampen, de sterfte in de gevangenissen tijdens verhoor en verblijf, de executies ten gevolge van de 'rechtspraak' en executies vanwege pseudoredenen (zoals de door Stalins regelmatig uitgevaardigde executiequota), et cetera. Shop for outfits for every occasion, whether you're dressing for a party, the office or just hanging out at home, with the stylish selections at Charlotte Russe. Arbeitsbuch zu Themen aktuell 2 mit russischen Anweisungen und Erklärungen.- zahlreiche Übungen zum Wortschatz, zur Grammatik und zur mündlichen und schriftlichen Sprachproduktion- lektionsweise Übersichten über den aktiv zu lernenden Wortschatz und die G By late 1929 Stalin began a program known as dekulakization. Bepaalde volkeren die de politiek van russificatie in de weg stonden moesten het extra ontgelden, zoals de Baltische volkeren en West-Oekraïners. Dans ces lointaines terres du Nord-Est de la Russie, se trouvait la branche du Goulag « Sevvostlag ». De Goelag werd officieel ontbonden in 1960; het beheer over de kampen werd toen een taak van de KGB. De productiviteit nam door deze regimeverzwaring sterk af: de opbrengst van de NKVD-kampen nam van 3,5 miljard roebel in 1936 af tot 2 miljard roebel in 1937 en de industriële opbrengsten (Dalstroj etc.) [146], The results of these archival studies convinced many scholars, including Robert Conquest[26] or Stephen Wheatcroft to reconsider their earlier estimates of the size of the GULAG population, although the 'high numbers' of arrested and deaths are not radically different from earlier estimates. Na de dood van Stalin in 1953 kwam meer dan de helft van de goelaggevangenen vrij. [108] Overall, during the first half of 1933, prisons saw more new incoming inmates than the three previous years combined. Pendant la guerre civile russe, le gouvernement communiste expédia de 150 000 à 400 000 personnes dans les goulags. Shortly thereafter Nikita Khrushchev was elected as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, initiating the processes of de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw, triggering a mass release and rehabilitation of political prisoners. Strikte leiding en toezicht, zo werd gedacht en gehoopt, zouden dwangarbeid net zo productief maken als vrije arbeid. She criticizes other commentators' conclusion that the purpose of the camps was a supply of cheap labor. S. G. Wheatcroft. [45] Information regarding the imprisonment trends and consequences for the intelligentsia derive from the extrapolations of Viktor Zemskov from a collection of prison camp population movements data.[45][60]. De broodrantsoenen werden meer dan gehalveerd. Gevangenisarbeid is altijd veel minder productief dan vrije arbeid – een les die de Sovjets pas na de dood van Stalin hebben begrepen. Wie die Ukraine versucht, in letzter Minute die Aufhebung der Sanktionen gegen die russischen Abgeordneten im Europarat zu verhindern. Publicist.n1.by. By 1946, the major part of the population of these camps were cleared by NKVD and either sent home or conscripted (see table for details). The term would also become associated with anyone who opposed or even seemed unsatisfied with the Soviet government. [59] During the Great Purge of 1937–38, mass arrests caused another increase in inmate numbers. During evacuations, machinery received priority, leaving prisoners to reach safety on foot. Vaak waren ze slechts te bereiken via de Zee van Ochotsk in het uiterste oosten, en elders via – al of niet bevroren – rivieren, of per slede. In such cases prisoners who did escape without getting shot were often found dead kilometres away from the camp. Goulag, Une Histoire Soviétique. [citation needed], In some cases, teams of inmates were dropped off in new territory with a limited supply of resources and left to set up a new camp or die. Goelag (Russisch: ГУЛАГ uitspraak (info / uitleg)) was in de Sovjet-Unie de overheidsdienst die verantwoordelijk was voor straf- en werkkampen. Not all camps were fortified; some in Siberia were marked only by posts. 2017 - Le décryptage fascinant des tatouages des prisonniers du Goulag Lacking food…they collect orts [refuse] and, according to some prisoners, eat rats and dogs. Petit vocabulaire actuel russe on Amazon.com.au. Even these revisions ultimately failed to resolve the problem, and the dekulakisation process was a failure in providing the government with a steady forced labor force. Goulash op eigen wijze – Goulash is echt een verwarmend gerecht, vol van smaak en lekker kruidig.Er zijn vele recepten voor goulash, iedere kok heeft wel weer een andere versie. During 1920–50, the leaders of the Communist Party and the Soviet state considered repression to be a tool that was to be used for securing the normal functioning of the Soviet state system, as well as for preserving and strengthening the positions within their social base, the working class (when the Bolsheviks took power, peasants represented 80% of the population). Up until World War II, the Gulag system expanded dramatically to create a Soviet "camp economy". London: Penguin Books., p. 52-53, See, for example, Gulaga, Naselenie. [35], Approximately 300,000 Polish prisoners of war were captured by the USSR during and after the "Polish Defensive War". Gulag: a History of the Soviet Camps. When the war in Europe ended in May 1945, as many as two million former Russian citizens were forcefully repatriated into the USSR. Annihilation camps were those where the inmates were "systematically wiped out through starvation and neglect." Er werd een ongehoorde regimeverzwaring in de goelags doorgevoerd: de status van de kampen waar veel politieke gevangenen verbleven, veranderde; de term vijand des volks werd nu een officiële term in de goelagcorrespondentie en de propaganda beschreef deze figuren als Vijanden van de Revolutie, iets wat nog lager stond dan tweebenige beesten, als ongedierte en als onkruid dat gewied moest worden. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No.4, ("Военно-исторический журнал" ("Military-Historical Magazine"), 1997, №5. Many eyewitness accounts of Gulag prisoners have been published: Gulags appear in various modern media such as movies and video games as a popular setting or background. Deze goulash heb ik een beetje bij mijn schoonvader afgekeken. The author likened the scattered camps to "a chain of islands," and as an eyewitness he described the Gulag as a system where people were worked to death. Op grote schaal gebeurde transport in meestal onverwarmde veewagons. Zo kwamen van de transporten in het eerste jaar van Dalstroj-directeur Berzin de 16.000 gevangenen die naar Magadan (doorgangsplaats van de Kolymagoelag) reisden slechts 9928 levend aan (verlies van 38%), de overigen kwamen op doorreis naar het noorden, slecht gekleed, slecht beschermd, slecht gevoed, in zware winterstormen terecht waardoor nogmaals slechts de helft het jaar erop nog in leven bleek.[6]. Sort by: Patrick Rotman Director. Soms moest ook nog deels over zee gevaren worden (zoals naar Kolyma) met vrachtschepen waar de zeks dan onder in onverwarmde ruimen werden geborgen om vervolgens weken door zeeën vol ijsschotsen te varen zonder ventilatie en voldoende sanitaire voorzieningen en op een uiterst karig rantsoen. [123] It is also necessary to note that not all the conclusions drawn by Zemskov based on his data have been generally accepted. Cited in David Dallin and Boris Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia. [5] Preliminary analysis of the GULAG camps and colonies statistics (see the chart on the right) demonstrated that the population reached the maximum before the World War II, then dropped sharply, partially due to massive releases, partially due to wartime high mortality, and then was gradually increasing until the end of Stalin era, reaching the global maximum in 1953, when the combined population of GULAG camps and labor colonies amounted to 2,625,000. De tekst is beschikbaar onder de licentie. Further, in 1945, about 100 filtration camps were set for repatriated Ostarbeiter, POWs, and other displaced persons, which processed more than 4,000,000 people. From the Late 1920s to the First Half of the 1950s. These prisoners were also lucky to be in the gulag in the early 1930s. De ontmenselijking van de 'vijanden' bleef in het kampsysteem echter overheersen tot de dood van Stalin. "[100], Certificates of death in the Gulag system for the period from 1930 to 1956.[19]. Prisoners in the camps faced harsh working conditions. Hierbij waren politieke tegenstanders (zogenaamde contrarevolutionairen ofwel kontras resp. Moscow's memorial is on Lubyanka Square, the site of the headquarters of the NKVD. In the first decade of Soviet rule, the judicial and penal systems were neither unified nor coordinated, and there was a distinction between criminal prisoners and political or "special" prisoners. Prisoners that had a shorter prison sentence than three years were to remain in the prison system that was still under the purview of the NKVD. As a result, Maksudov charges that Zemskov attempts to make generalized statements with reference to a particular document, as a rule, do not hold water. Gregory, Paul R., and Valery Lazarev, eds. [118]:444–5 The only real economic purpose they typically served was financing the cost of their own supervision. In 1926, the Oimiakon (Оймякон) village in this region registered the record low temperature of −71.2 °C (−96 °F). The Gulag spanned nearly four decades of Soviet and East European history and affected millions of individuals. Dit proces werd versneld doordat de werknormen vaak heel hoog lagen, zeker voor stadsmensen die nooit zwaar werk als bomen kappen, rotsen uithouwen, ermee sjouwen en slepen, et cetera hadden verricht.[5]. The institutional analysis of the Soviet concentration system is complicated by the formal distinction between GULAG and GUPVI. She differentiated between "authentic" forced-labor camps, concentration camps, and "annihilation camps". [7] De aantallen in de jaren twintig, na 1953 tot in de jaren tachtig zijn onbekend. Thierry Baudet wordt in een interview met weekblad Privé gevraagd of hij niet stiekem een homoseksuele man is. In the early days of Gulag, the locations for the camps were chosen primarily for the isolated conditions involved. [134] Importantly, the released documents made possible to clarify terminology used to describe different categories of forced labor population, because the use of the terms "forced labor", "GULAG", "camps" interchangeably by early researchers led to significant confusion and resulted in significant inconsistencies in the earlier estimates.
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